Brain Injury Law Blog : Head Injury : Coma : Personal Injury : Las Vegas Nevada Lawyer & Attorney Tim Titolo

Green tea may shield brain from sleep apnea effects, says Amy Norton in Reuters Health -

 Compounds found in green tea may help ward off the neurological damage that can come with the breathing disorder sleep apnea, a new animal study hints.

Researchers found that when they added green tea antioxidants to rats' drinking water, it appeared to protect the animals' brains during bouts of oxygen deprivation designed to mimic the effects of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).

The findings suggest that green tea compounds should be further studied as a potential OSA therapy, the researchers report in the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine.

OSA is a common disorder in which soft tissues in the throat temporarily collapse and block the airway during sleep, causing repeated stops and starts in breathing throughout the night.

The immediate symptoms include chronic loud snoring and gasping, as well as daytime sleepiness. Left untreated, OSA can eventually have widespread effects in the body; it's linked to high blood pressure, and research suggests that the intermittent dips in oxygen to the brain may lead to memory and learning difficulties.

In the new study, Dr. David Gozal and colleagues at the University of Louisville School of Medicine in Kentucky looked at whether green tea compounds called catechin polyphenols could help shield the brain from this oxygen deprivation.

Catechin polyphenols act as antioxidants, which means they help neutralize cell-damaging particles called oxygen free radicals. Free radicals are normal byproducts of metabolism, but in excess they lead to a state known as oxidative stress.

It's thought that the oxygen deprivation of OSA leads to oxidative stress, and that this, at least in part, explains the cognitive problems seen in some people with the sleep disorder.

Gozal and his colleagues found that when rats were exposed to periodic bouts of oxygen deprivation over 14 days, it did boost signs of oxidative stress in the brain. This didn't happen, however, if rats had been given water containing green tea polyphenols.

What's more, compared with rats given plain water, these animals performed better on a standard test of learning and memory -- a water "maze" designed to encourage the animals to remember the location of an escape platform.

In theory, Gozal told Reuters Health, a regular cup of green tea could be beneficial, used alongside standard OSA treatment.

"However," he said, "definitive proof that green tea would help will have to await a trial in human patients."

SOURCE: American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, May 15, 2008

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Urge Your Representatives in Congress to Increase Federal Funding for TBI Programs! Take Action!



As Congress adjourns for Memorial Day Recess next week, formal appropriations action on federal TBI programs is just around the corner.

Beginning in June, both the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees are expected to hold markups on the Fiscal 2009 Labor, Health and Human Services (HHS), and Education Appropriations bill, which provides federal funding for multiple TBI programs.

Federal funding for TBI Act programs, as well as NIDRR's TBI-related research programs, has deteriorated or remained stagnant over the last several years. The urgent need for increased federal support for a national TBI public health infrastructure and TBI research is further heightened by the recognition of TBI as the signature wound of combat in Iraq and Afghanistan. The need for substantially increased federal funding for TBI programs must be clearly communicated to Members of Congress in the coming days and weeks if these programs are to be adequately funded this year.

In addition, this year's appropriations process poses a great challenge, as it is expected to be delayed and manipulated as a result of election year politics.

The return of Members of Congress to their home districts during the Memorial Day Recess this next week provides a critical opportunity for advocates to weigh in regarding the urgent need to increase funding for federal TBI programs. Likewise, BIAA urges advocates to click the "Take Action" link in the upper right hand corner of this email to contact their representatives in Congress via email or phone.

BIAA's Policy Corner and Legislative Action Alerts are made possible by the Centre for Neuro Skills, James F. Humphreys & Associates, and Lakeview Healthcare Systems, Inc. The Brain Injury Association of America gratefully acknowledges their support for legislative action.

To sign up to receive future BIAA Policy Corner E-Newsletters and Legislative Action Alerts, please go to http://capwiz.com/bia/mlm/signup/

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New Brain Injury Book To Be Featured on NPR
National Public Radio's Diane Rehm Show to Feature New Brain Injury Book

On Tuesday, May 27, at 11 am EDT, nationally-recognized talk show host Diane Rehm will interview Susan Connors, Brain Injury Association of America president/CEO, and Michael Mason, author of Head Cases, the compelling compilation of individual stories of brain injury and its aftermath.

Tune your radio to the National Public Radio Station in your area. When the show starts, call 1-800-433-8850 or send an email to participate.

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Urge Your Representatives in Congress to Increase Federal Funding for TBI Programs!
Take Action!


As Congress adjourns for Memorial Day Recess next week, formal appropriations action on federal TBI programs is just around the corner.

Beginning in June, both the House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees are expected to hold markups on the Fiscal 2009 Labor, Health and Human Services (HHS), and Education Appropriations bill, which provides federal funding for multiple TBI programs.

Federal funding for TBI Act programs, as well as NIDRR's TBI-related research programs, has deteriorated or remained stagnant over the last several years. The urgent need for increased federal support for a national TBI public health infrastructure and TBI research is further heightened by the recognition of TBI as the signature wound of combat in Iraq and Afghanistan. The need for substantially increased federal funding for TBI programs must be clearly communicated to Members of Congress in the coming days and weeks if these programs are to be adequately funded this year.

In addition, this year's appropriations process poses a great challenge, as it is expected to be delayed and manipulated as a result of election year politics.

The return of Members of Congress to their home districts during the Memorial Day Recess this next week provides a critical opportunity for advocates to weigh in regarding the urgent need to increase funding for federal TBI programs. Likewise, BIAA urges advocates to click the "Take Action" link in the upper right hand corner of this email to contact their representatives in Congress via email or phone.

BIAA's Policy Corner and Legislative Action Alerts are made possible by the Centre for Neuro Skills, James F. Humphreys & Associates, and Lakeview Healthcare Systems, Inc. The Brain Injury Association of America gratefully acknowledges their support for legislative action.
To sign up to receive future BIAA Policy Corner E-Newsletters and Legislative Action Alerts, please go to  http://capwiz.com/bia/mlm/signup/  

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Brain Injury Association of America
Policy Corner E-Newsletter – May 23, 2008
A weekly update on federal policy activity related to traumatic brain injury
__________________________________________________________________
Dear Advocates:
After a busy week focused on a variety of legislation, including unsuccessful efforts to achieve final passage of the war supplemental appropriations bill and a budget resolution conference agreement, Congress is now in recess until Monday, June 2, in observance of the Memorial Day holiday.

BIAA issued a Legislative Action Alert on Fiscal Year 2009 TBI appropriations this week, despite the fact that Congress failed to successfully pass a final budget resolution. BIAA urges advocates to make contact with their representatives in Congress - and if possible, schedule a face-to-face meeting while they are in their home districts this next week – and urge them to increase appropriations for federal TBI programs.

On Wednesday, May 21, the Senate Veterans Affairs Committee held a hearing on pending health care legislation, including S. 2921, The Caring for Wounded Warriors Act, which BIAA has strongly endorsed. BIAA submitted a Statement for the Record for the hearing urging the Committee to swiftly approve the bill, which would strengthen supports for family caregivers of returning servicemembers with TBI.

Also this week, BIAA distributed an issue brief to Capitol Hill staff highlighting the need for TRICARE to officially cover cognitive rehabilitation. The information paper was accompanied by a summary of the research supporting the efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation in treating brain injury.
In addition this week, on May 22, 2008, BIAA submitted official comments to the Department of Education on the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research’s (NIDRR) Proposed Long-Range Plan for Fiscal Years 2010-2014. BIAA’s comments were based on a coalition letter which BIAA signed on to as well, but also included BIAA’s individual recommendations for future research priorities.

Note: Policy Corner will not be published next week, as Congress will be out of session. The next issue of Policy Corner will be published on Friday, June 6.

*Distributed by Laura Schiebelhut, BIAA Director of Government Affairs, on behalf of the Brain Injury Association of America; 703-761-0750 ext. 637; lschiebelhut@biausa.org

BIAA’s Policy Corner and Legislative Action Alerts are made possible by the Centre for Neuro Skills, James F. Humphreys & Associates, and Lakeview Healthcare Systems, Inc. The Brain Injury Association of America gratefully acknowledges their support for legislative action.

To sign up to receive future BIAA Policy Corner E-Newsletters and Legislative Action Alerts, please go to http://capwiz.com/bia/mlm/signup/
__________________________________________________________________
Appropriations Update
BIAA issued a Legislative Action Alert on Fiscal Year 2009 TBI appropriations this week, despite the fact that Congress failed to successfully pass a final budget resolution.
Although conferees came to an agreement on a final budget plan on Tuesday, a glitch with a major farm bill (H.R. 2419) threw the congressional schedule in to chaos Wednesday night. This scheduling problem eventually resulted in the postponement of a vote on the adoption of the fiscal 2009 budget resolution conference agreement until June.

The budget resolution is a nonbinding document which determines annual aggregate revenue and spending targets for Congress. This year, Democrats have proposed to spend $24.5 billion more than the $991.6 billion in discretionary funding proposed by President Bush.
Final passage of a budget resolution would facilitate the establishment of official funding allocations for the fiscal 2009 Labor-HHS-Education Appropriations bill, which funds multiple TBI-related programs, including programs authorized through the TBI Act.

However, according to CQ Today, “Because of the likelihood of a protracted dispute between Congress and the White House, few, if any, of the appropriations bills are likely to be cleared before the Nov. 4 elections. Indeed, Democrats may try to enact a long-term continuing resolution that would last until after the Jan. 20 inauguration of the next president” (David Clark, CQ Today, 5/22/08).

Regardless of how the appropriations process is expected to play out this year, BIAA urges advocates to make contact with their representatives in Congress - and if possible, schedule a face-to-face meeting while they are in their home districts this next week – and urge them to substantially increase appropriations for federal TBI programs.

BIAA Submits Statement for the Record to Senate Veterans Affairs Committee
On Wednesday, May 21, the Senate Veterans Affairs Committee held a hearing on pending health care legislation, including S. 2921, The Caring for Wounded Warriors Act, which BIAA has strongly endorsed. BIAA submitted a Statement for the Record for the hearing urging the Committee to swiftly approve the bill, which was introduced by Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton and would increase support for family caregivers of servicemembers with TBI. Several recommendations made by BIAA during the legislative drafting process were incorporated into the bill.

The bill would require two pilot programs to be implemented through the Department of Veterans Affairs, improving the resources available to those caring for returning servicemembers with TBI.
In the Statement for the Record, BIAA President and CEO Susan H. Connors noted, “Family care is the most important source of assistance for people with chronic or disabling conditions, including people with brain injury. Yet, research has found that all too often, the traumatic brain injury of a spouse or close relative places extreme stress on family caregivers, frequently resulting in negative physical and emotional outcomes for the caregivers themselves.”
To view a copy of BIAA’s Statement for the Record on S. 2921, please visit our website at http://www.biausa.org/policyissues.htm.

BIAA Publishes Issue Brief Calling for Official TRICARE Coverage of Cognitive Rehabilitation
Also this week, BIAA distributed an issue brief to Capitol Hill staff highlighting the need for TRICARE to officially cover cognitive rehabilitation. The information paper was accompanied by a summary of the research supporting the efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation in treating brain injury.
BIAA’s issue brief makes a compelling argument for making cognitive rehabilitation an official benefit within TRICARE, arguing that “A clear clinical consensus has developed recognizing the importance of providing cognitive rehabilitation to patients with TBI, and servicemembers suffering from TBI resulting from deployment deserve nothing less than the appropriate level of care based on currently accepted and widely used treatment modalities.”

To view a copy of BIAA’s Issue Brief on Cognitive Rehabilitation & TRICARE, please visit our website at http://www.biausa.org/policyissues.htm.

BIAA Submits Comments on NIDRR’s Long-Range Plan for Fiscal Years 2010-2014
On May 22, 2008, BIAA submitted official comments to the Department of Education on the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research’s (NIDRR) Proposed Long-Range Plan for Fiscal Years 2010-2014. BIAA’s comments were based on a coalition letter which BIAA signed on to as well, but also included BIAA’s individual recommendations for future research priorities.

To view a copy of BIAA’s Comment Letter on NIDRR’s Long-Range Plan, please visit our website at http://www.biausa.org/policyissues.htm.

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BIAA legislative update as follows: 

Defense issues are expected to be the focus of legislative activity next week, as the Senate plans to debate the war supplemental bill, while the House plans to consider the fiscal 2009 defense authorization bill (H.R. 5658).

Earlier this week, the House passed an amendment related to the war supplemental bill containing a provision, strongly supported by the Brain Injury Association of America, which would

delay implementation of seven harmful Medicaid regulations proposed by the Bush Administration. BIAA will continue to advocate in favor of maintaining this provision in the war supplemental bill as it is considered by the Senate next week.

Also next week, floor consideration of a possible final version of the fiscal 2009 budget resolution (S. Con. Res. 70) could also take place, as Congress works to accomplish legislative goals before leaving town for a week-long Memorial Day Recess beginning on Monday, May 26.
Final passage of a budget resolution would include the establishment of official funding allocations for the fiscal 2009 Labor-HHS-Education Appropriations bill, which funds multiple TBI-related programs, including programs authorized through the TBI Act.

Please watch for a BIAA Legislative Action Alert on fiscal 2009 TBI Appropriations to be sent out early next week.
__________________________________________________________________
Debate over War Supplemental Bill Continues

An amendment related to the war supplemental bill passed by the House earlier this week contained a provision, strongly supported by the Brain Injury Association of America, which would delay implementation of seven Bush administration Medicaid regulations.

This provision includes the content of legislation (H.R. 5613) endorsed by BIAA, which would place a moratorium through March 2009 on several harmful Medicaid regulations, including regulations which would negatively impact individuals with traumatic brain injury.

According to an article last week in CQ Today, by attaching H.R. 5613 to the war spending bill, Democrats hope to avoid an extra set of cloture votes in the Senate, where the Medicaid moratorium bill on its own had been facing a GOP filibuster (Alex Wayne, CQ Today, 5/6/2008).
The House of Representatives passed H.R. 5613 by a veto-proof margin, 349-62, on April 23. Without a moratorium, all seven of the regulations would go into effect by June 30 of this year, including regulations which would limit access to essential services for individuals with brain injury.

BIAA continues to strongly endorse H.R. 5613 and supports efforts to keep the bill’s content in the war supplemental legislation as it is considered by the Senate next week.
Fiscal 2009 Appropriations Update

Floor consideration of a possible final version of the fiscal 2009 budget resolution (S. Con. Res. 70) could take place next week, as Congress works to accomplish legislative goals before leaving town for a week-long Memorial Day Recess beginning on Monday, May 26.
Final passage of a budget resolution would include the establishment of official funding (“302b”) allocations for the fiscal 2009 Labor-HHS-Education Appropriations bill, which funds multiple TBI-related programs, including programs authorized through the TBI Act.

Last week, BIAA signed on to a coalition letter urging Appropriations Committee Chairs in both chambers to allocate an additional $15 billion over last year’s funding levels for the Labor-HHS-Education Subcommittees.

The letter states that this additional funding is necessary, as it would “(1) restore cuts to core program funding over the last four years, (2) more appropriately account for four years of inflation and population growth to maintain service levels and purchasing power; and (3) return these programs to the FY 2005 level, a high water mark for many.”

Once 302b Subcommittee allocations have been determined, the fiscal 2009 appropriations process can officially go forward with bill markups and other official action.

Continue Reading...

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If you're one of the nearly 30 million Americans* who suffers from migraine headaches, you now have a new way to fight them. This month, a new drug is expected to land in pharmacies that combines two existing migraine drugs.

Find out more here.

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A compilation of studies reveal that overeating and undereating can contribute to onset of Alzheimers.  These findings as a risk factor may be important to lifestyle changes and propensities.

 

Read the full article here.

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In a medical era governed by managed health care and scientific advances, physicians have increasingly emphasized disease prevention and early diagnosis. Such a strategy both reduces costs, as it is generally much more cost-effective to prevent a disease than it is to treat its manifestations, and increases treatment efficacy, as most diseases are more easily cured or ameliorated earlier in their progression.

The premise is doing MRI scans BEFORE symptoms arise.  MRI is being offered to the public for as low as $200.

The pros and cons are discussed in an article entitled Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scans for Asymptomatic Patients: Role in Medical Screening.

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BIAA has strongly endorsed The Caring for Wounded Warriors Act of 2008 (S. 2921), legislation introduced on Monday, April 28 by Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton which would increase support for family caregivers of servicemembers with TBI. Several recommendations made by BIAA during the legislative drafting process were incorporated into the bill.

BIAA encourages you to urge your Senator to sign on as a cosponsor of this important legislation.
The bill would require two pilot programs to be implemented through the Department of Veterans Affairs, improving the resources available to those caring for returning servicemembers with TBI.
The first pilot program, which would provide for training, certification and compensation for family caregiver personal attendants for veterans and members of the Armed Forces with TBI, is very similar to a provision in last year’s Heroes At Home Act of 2007, which BIAA also strongly endorsed.

The second pilot program would leverage existing partnerships between Veterans Affairs facilities and the nation’s premier universities, training graduate students to provide respite care for families caring for wounded warriors suffering from TBI.

To urge your Senator to become a cosponsor of S. 2921, click here.

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The North American Brain Injury Society is pleased to announce the 21st Annual Legal Conference on Brain Injury will be held in New Orleans, Louisiana, October 2-4, 2008.

OVERVIEW
This 21st Annual Conference on Legal Issues in Brain Injury offers detailed, practical information on every aspect of litigating a case involving brain injury. Over 60 of the leading attorneys and medical experts from North America will provide the tools you need to successfully handle these challenging cases. From case selection to trial techniques, this Conference is the “must attend” event for professionals involved in brain injury litigation.

Building on the success of last year''s pre and post-conference workshops, the program chairs have included several "hands on" panel format discussions that will address the practical issues presented by brain injury cases.

As an added bonus, attendees to this Conference may also attend the concurrent sessions of the NABIS Sixth Annual Medical Conference on Brain Injury.

Who should attend? Allattorneys involved in brain injury litigation and medical professionals are involved in brain injury cases as experts or consultants.

LOCATION
The New Orleans Convention Center Marriott is located at the edge of the historic French Quarter and features 1,329 beautifully appointed guest rooms and suites complemented by a sparkling Concierge Lounge. Guests are positioned steps from the world famous Bourbon Street. Discover the bridge between business and pleasure at the esteemed Marriott New Orleans Hotel in the French Quarter! NABIS has negotiated a reduced rate of only $165.00 per night for attendees to the conference. To book your room, click here. If you prefer, you may book your room by calling 1-800-Marriott and referencing the “North America Brain Injury Society” block.

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This week marked a major legislative victory for the brain injury community, as President Bush officially signed into law legislation reauthorizing the TBI Act (S. 793) on Monday, April 28! Congratulations to all BIAA state affiliates, advocates, and national stakeholders who helped make TBI Act reauthorization a reality. To view a copy of BIAA’s official press release applauding this major accomplishment, please visit our website at http://www.biausa.org/policyissues.htm.

In other exciting news, BIAA proudly endorsed The Caring for Wounded Warriors Act of 2008 (S. 2921), legislation introduced on Monday, April 28 by Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton which would increase support for family caregivers of servicemembers with TBI. Several recommendations made by BIAA during the legislative drafting process were incorporated into the bill. A copy of BIAA’s Letter of Endorsement for S. 2921 will be available shortly on our website at http://www.biausa.org/policyissues.htm.

Also this week, a report was released by the Department of Veterans Affairs Inspector General which found that the VA is not providing the necessary standard of support and long-term follow-up assistance needed by veterans with TBI and their families.

In addition, after the House of Representatives passed by a veto-proof margin last week important legislation which would place a moratorium until March 2009 on several harmful Medicaid regulations (H.R. 5613), the fate of the bill was left up to the Senate. Earlier this week, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid (D-NV) attempted to bring the bill up on the Unanimous Consent Calendar, but this attempt was blocked by Senator Coburn (R-OK). Now there is an effort to get the bill included in the FY 2008 Supplemental Appropriations bill. BIAA continues to strongly endorse H.R. 5613 and supports efforts to include the bill in the FY 2008 Supplemental Appropriations bill.
As a final note, BIAA is waiting to see if Congress will be able to establish a budget this year before sending out its Legislative Action Alert on FY 2009 TBI Appropriations. There is speculation that Congress may indeed be able to achieve a budget agreement in the upcoming next few weeks, and BIAA’s Appropriations Action Alert will be sent out shortly thereafter.

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More attention has been paid to the mental health of American troops in Iraq and Afghanistan than in any previous war. Yet shame remains a significant barrier to military personnel and their families getting the psychiatric treatment they need, a report released Wednesday says.

Time Magazine reports today on the American Psychiatric Association's study that veterans are attaching a stigma to the psychiatric afftects of the war.  This is a function of educating the public and veterans about the reality of brain and mental injury.

The good news is nearly three-quarters of the 200 military men and women interviewed by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) said that it was very or somewhat easy for them to seek out mental health care. But 60% still feared that doing so could have negative consequences on their career. More than half reported they believe others would think less of them if they sought out counseling, and most surveyed said they have rarely or never spoken even to family and friends about mental health issues. These numbers show "there's still a long way to go towards reducing the stigma surrounding care," says APA board member Dr. Mary Helen Davis.

Click here to read the whole article.

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Title: psychology

Date: 4/24/2008; Publication: The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition;

psychology science or study of the thought processes and behavior of humans and other animals in their interaction with the environment. Psychologists study processes of sense perception , thinking, learning , cognition, emotions and motivations , personality , abnormal behavior, interactions between individuals, and interactions with the environment. The field is closely allied with such disciplines as anthropology and sociology in its concerns with social and environmental influences on behavior; physics in its treatment of vision, hearing, and touch; and biology in the study of the physiological basis of behavior. In its earliest speculative period, psychological study was chiefly embodied in philosophical and theological discussions of the soul.

Development of Modern Psychology

The De anima of Aristotle is considered the first monument of psychology as such, centered around the belief that the heart was the basis for mental activity. The foundations of modern psychology were laid by 17th-century philosopher Thomas Hobbes , who argued that scientific causes could be established for every sort of phenomenon through deductive reasoning. The mind-body theories of Rene Descartes , Baruch Spinoza , and G. W. Leibniz were equally crucial in the development of modern psychology, where the human mind's relation to the body and its actions have been significant topics of debate.

In England the empirical method employed in modern psychological study originated in the work of John Locke , George Berkeley , Thomas Reid , and David Hume . David Hartley , James Mill , John Stuart Mill , and Alexander Bain stressed the relation of physiology to psychology, an important development in the scientific techniques of modern psychology. Important contributions were made in the physiological understanding of human psychology by French philosopher Condillac , F. J. Gall , the German founder of phrenology, and French surgeon Paul Broca , who localized speech centers in the brain.

In the 19th cent., the laboratory work of Ernst Heinrich Weber , Gustave Fechner , Wilhelm Wundt , Hermann von Helmholtz , and Edward Titchener helped to establish psychology as a scientific discipline—both through the use of the scientific method of research, and in the belief that mental processes could be quantified with careful research techniques. The principle of evolution, stemming from Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection, gave rise to what became known as dynamic psychology. The new approach, presented by American psychologist William James in his Principles of Psychology (1890), looked at consciousness as an evolutionary process.

Out of the new orientation in psychology grew the clinical experiments in hysteria and hypnotism carried on by J. M. Charcot and Pierre Janet in France. Sigmund Freud , in his influential theory of the unconscious, gave a new direction to psychology and laid the groundwork for the psychoanalytic model. Freudian theory took psychology into such fields as education, anthropology, and medicine, and Freudian research methods became the foundations of clinical psychology.

The behaviorism of American psychologist John B. Watson was highly influential in the 1920s and 30s, with its suggestion that psychology should concern itself solely with sensory stimuli and behavioral reaction. Behaviorism has been important in modern psychology, particularly through the work of B. F. Skinner since the 1930s.

Equally important was the development of Gestalt psychology by German psychologists Kurt Koffka , Wolfgang Köhler , and Max Wertheimer . Gestalt theory contended that the task of psychology was to study human thought and behavior as a whole, rather than breaking it down into isolated instances of stimulus and response.

Another influential school of psychology was developed in the 1950s and 60s by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers . Their humanistic theory asserts that people make rational, conscious decisions regarding their lives, and optimistically suggests that individuals tend to reach toward their greatest potential.

Modern Psychology

Modern psychology is divided into several subdisciplines, each based on differing models of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists work in a number of different settings, including universities and colleges, primary and secondary schools, government agencies, private industry, hospitals, clinics, and private practices. Recent years have seen a rise in the significance of applied psychology—as can be seen from the areas contemporary psychologists concern themselves with—with an attendant decline in the importance of psychology in academia. In the United States, clinical psychology has become a significant focus of the discipline, largely separate from psychological research. Clinical psychologists are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of various psychological problems.

Biological models of behavior have become increasingly prominent in psychological theory, particularly with the development of various tools—such as the positron emission tomography (PET) scan—for mapping the brain. The field of neuropsychology, which studies the brain and the connected nervous system, has been an outgrowth of this contemporary focus on biological explanations of human thought and behavior. Cognitive models, derived from the Gestalt school of psychology, focus on the various thinking processes which mediate between stimuli and responses.

Educational psychology, derived from the 18th and 19th cent. educational reforms of Friedrich W. Froebel , Johann Pestalozzi , and their follower Johann Herbart , was later expanded by G. Stanley Hall and by E. L. Thorndike . It is concerned with the development of improved methods of teaching and learning.

Social psychology, developed by British psychologists William McDougall and Havelock Ellis , studies the effects of various social environments on the individual. Some other branches of the field include developmental psychology, which studies the changes in thought and behavior through the course of life; experimental psychology, which is the laboratory research involved in the understanding of the mind; and personality psychology, which deals specifically with individual personality and the processes by which it is formed.

In recent years a number of new fields of psychology have emerged. Industrial/organizational psychology, emerging from social psychology, focuses on the workplace and considers such topics as job satisfaction, leadership, and productivity. Health psychology examines how psychological factors contribute to pathology, and demonstrates how psychology can contribute to recovery and illness prevention for such somatic disorders as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. In environmental psychology, research focuses on how individuals react to their physical environments, and suggests improvements which may be beneficial to psychological health. Other new areas of psychology include counseling psychology, school psychology, forensic psychology, and community psychology.

Bibliography

See R. Fancher, Pioneers in Psychology (1979); D. Robinson, An Intellectual History of Modern Psychology (1986); E. Hilgard, Psychology in America (1987); M. Ash and W. Woodward, Psychology in 20th Century Thought and Society (1989); R. B. Evans, V. S. Sexton, and T. C. Cadwallader, ed., The American Psychological Association (1992).

Author not available, PSYCHOLOGY., The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2008
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Copyright 2008 Columbia University Press

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brain the supervisory center of the nervous system in all vertebrates. It also serves as the site of emotions, memory, self-awareness, and thought.

Anatomy and Function

Occupying the skull cavity (cranium), the adult human brain normally weighs from 2 1/4 to 3 1/4 lb (1-1.5 kg). Differences in weight and size do not correlate with differences in mental ability; an elephant's brain weighs more than four times that of a human. In invertebrates a group of ganglia or even a single ganglion may serve as a rudimentary brain.

By means of electrochemical impulses the brain directly controls conscious or voluntary behavior, such as walking and thinking. It also monitors, through feedback circuitry, most involuntary behavior—connections with the autonomic nervous system enable the brain to adjust heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance, posture, and other functions—and influences automatic activities of the internal organs. There are no pain receptors in brain tissue. A headache is felt because of sensory impulses coming chiefly from the meninges or scalp.

Anatomically the brain has three major parts, the hindbrain (including the cerebellum and the brain stem ), the midbrain, and the forebrain (including the diencephalon and the cerebrum). Every brain area has an associated function, although many functions may involve a number of different areas. The cerebellum coordinates muscular movements and, along with the midbrain, monitors posture. The brain stem, which incorporates the medulla and the pons, monitors involuntary activities such as breathing and vomiting.

The thalamus , which forms the major part of the diencephalon, receives incoming sensory impulses and routes them to the appropriate higher centers. The hypothalamus , occupying the rest of the diencephalon, regulates heartbeat, body temperature, and fluid balance. Above the thalamus extends the corpus callosum, a neuron-rich membrane connecting the two hemispheres of the cerebrum.

The cerebrum, occupying the topmost portion of the skull, is by far the largest sector of the brain. Split vertically into left and right hemispheres, it appears deeply fissured and grooved. Its upper surface, the cerebral cortex, contains most of the master controls of the body. In the cortex ultimate analysis of sensory data occurs, and motor impulses originate that initiate, reinforce, or inhibit the entire spectrum of muscle and gland activity. The parts of the cerebrum intercommunicate through association tracts consisting of connector neurons. Association neurons account for approximately half of the total number of nerve cells in the brain. The tracts are believed to be involved with reasoning, learning, and memory. The left half of the cerebrum controls the right side of the body; the right half controls the left side.

Other important parts of the brain include the pituitary gland , the basal ganglia, and the reticular activating system (RAS). The pituitary participates in growth regulation. The basal ganglia, located just above the diencephalon in each cerebral hemisphere, handle coordination and habitual but acquired skills like chewing and playing the piano. The RAS forms a special system of nerve cells linking the medulla, pons, midbrain, and cerebral cortex. The RAS functions as a sentry. In a noisy crowd, for example, the RAS alerts a person when a friend speaks and enables that person to ignore other sounds.

Nerve fibers in the brain are sheathed in a near-white substance called myelin and form the white matter of the brain. Nerve cell bodies, which are not covered by myelin sheaths, form the gray matter. The billions of nerve cells in the brain are structurally supported by the hairlike filaments of glial cells. Smaller than nerve cells and ten times as numerous, the glia account for an estimated half of the brain's weight. Cranial blood vessels in the brain have certain selective permiability characteristics that largely constitute the "blood-brain barrier." The entire brain is enveloped in three protective sheets known as the meninges , continuations of the membranes that wrap the spinal cord . The two inner sheets enclose a shock-absorbing cushion of cerebrospinal fluid.

Neural Pathways

Sensory nerve cells feed information to the brain from every part of the body, external and internal. The brain evaluates the data, then sends directives through the motor nerve cells to muscles and glands, causing them to take suitable action. Alternatively, the brain may inhibit action, as when a person tries not to laugh or cry, or it may simply store the information for later use. Both incoming information and outgoing commands traverse the brain and the rest of the nervous system in the form of electrochemical impulses.

The human brain consists of some 10 billion interconnected nerve cells with innumerable extensions. This interlacing of nerve fibers and their junctions allows a nerve impulse to follow any of a virtually unlimited number of pathways. The effect is to give humans a seemingly infinite variety of responses to sensory input, which may depend upon experience, mood, or any of numerous other factors. During both sleep and consciousness, the ceaseless electrochemical activity in the brain generates brain waves that can be electronically detected and recorded (see electroencephalography ).

Research

Brain research, now often referred to as a part of neuropsychology, cognitive science, psychobiology, or other similar fields, has become much more active in recent years. Aided largely by advanced new imaging techniques such as MRI ( magnetic resonance imaging) and the PET (positron emission tomography) scan, neuroscientists have been better able to localize specific functions involving thought, language, perceiving, mental imaging, memory, and other abilities. Much more has been learned about the roles of neurotransmitters as well. New life has been given to the traditional philosophical debate on how to reconcile the seeming contradiction between the richness of subjective experience, including self-awareness, with purely scientific explanations of brain function.

Bibliography

See D. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (1991); J. A. Hobson, The Chemistry of Conscious States (1994); S. A. Greenfield, The Human Brain (1997); M. R. W. Dawson, Understanding Cognitive Science (1998); J. M. Allman, Evolving Brains (1999).

Author not available, BRAIN., The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2008
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Copyright 2008 Columbia University Press

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